The Northwestern University economist Charles Manksi calls it the "reflection problem": How can we know if person A is affecting person B, or the reverse? Without being in each person's head or observing every subtle non-verbal cue in their interactions, it's impossible to know what's causing what, who is the leader and who is the follower.
Families are especially complex: Cause and effect are hard to disentangle in the bubbling cauldron that is a household. There are the daily negotiations between husband and wife, instructions to (and rejections by) children, and interactions with people outside the family. Taken as a whole, it is a challenge for a social scientist to analyze.
But there is at least one lens through which family interactions and feedback have become apparent: gender. It turns out that a complex set of negotiations and drives revolve around the sex of children, which involve both effects from parents onto children and vice versa.
Alistair Berg/Getty ImagesIn 1973, Robert Trivers and Dan Willard put forth the hypothesis that the sex of offspring is not, in fact, a random draw. The argument was based on the fact that, in many mammal species where investments in offspring are high,…
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